A commander's ability to visualize how to move the force to the desired end state is especially critical irregular warfare. Current training on commander's visualization, however, is limited and lacks effective methods for developing expert visualization skills. Expertise is best attained by integrating education, training, and experience with deliberate reflection and practice. To improve commander's visualization irregular warfare, the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI) developed and assessed an educational product called End State: Commander's Visualization at the Company Level. A separate version of End State for battalion commanders was also developed (Shadrick, et al., 2008). The company-level research reported here features innovative methods to advance learning and empirical data for assessing and understanding novice versus expert differences in commander's visualization.

End State for company commanders is a multi-media educational and assessment product that includes 14 learning modules, a pre-test, and a post-test in a sequential series of scenario-based vignettes situated in Iraq. Learning begins with "reflection" vignettes in which learners observe and reflect on the exemplar performance of 3-D animated role models. Learning progresses to complementary "action" vignettes where learners apply their visualization skills and receive immediate, instructorless feedback and assessment. The paper reports results from a formative evaluation with 48 captains and lieutenants that guided product refinements and concluded that End State is effective, relevant, and worth using. The paper also reports results on research conducted to ensure parallel pre- and post-tests for End State and develop normative standards of novice versus expert performance on commander's visualization. The results establish a needed empirical base to understand and improve commanders' ability to visualize irregular warfare.